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Packet means a segment of information. This segment of information has a size. Yes, the size is that of the information that lies in the packet. We know that the size of information is expressed in bytes.  Information travels through Networks in the form of packets. In a particular collection all the packets have equal size. If we talk of packets elsewhere, then size may be different.  Packets can be sent over telecommunications lines. Such activities result in assured delivery of packets to the receiver. Yes, such transportation over physical links is reliable.  At a time only one packet can be sent over a telecommunications line. When the line becomes free, the next packet can be sent. When a packet is sent over a communication line, communication may succeed or fail. The success or failure of the communication process is related to transmission of previous and subsequent packets. This is true in cases where communication uses physical connections such as telecommunicat...

Mathematical Induction is a method of supporting a mathematical statement. The method is based on producing evidence for the purpose of verification of the statement. The presented evidence serves to verify the mathematical statement. The correctness of the mathematical statement is tested by the verification. The mathematical statement is verified. The mathematical statement stands true if use of scientific verification justifies the statement. At first, the mathematical statement is verified by using a limited form of evidence. Then we go onward for further  verification. Onward verification also must justify the meaningfulness of the mathematical statement. __________________________ Principle of Mathematical Induction: Let P(n) be a statement involving the natural number n such that  P(1) is true and P(k+1) is true, whenever P(k) is true then P(n) is true for all n € N. _____________________________   First the element produced as evidence is the natural number '1'. '...

Multi-Tier Architecture of Computers is focused on multi-level arrangement of computing units. It is our goal to study how Computers are used levelwise. According to capacity and requirements we place Computers in three different tiers. The different requirements that should be met primarily by the Computers at three levels are: 1 ) 1st Tier: Satisfactory Speed and Memory Capacity  2 ) 2nd Tier: High Processing Speed 3 ) 3rd Tier: Large Storage ____________________________ First Tier: The Computer at the First Tier starts the communication process. In the First Tier there is a user Computer. It is also called Client Computer ( Thin Client). The Client needs service. It frames its requirement(s). The requirement is forwarded to the Computer at the Second Tier. After forwarding its requirement, the Client Computer waits for the response ( reply ). The response ( reply ) is expected from the Second Tier Computer to which service request has been forwarded.  ______________________...

A Communication Subnetwork ( Subnet ) is a typical subpart of a Network. The Subnetwork Computers are of high capacity. The subnetwork activities are carefully monitored. Advanced Computers are used as nodes. These are called Hosts. Such Computers are interconnected with communication links forming a Communication Subnetwork.  Subnetwork Computers have high speed and large storage. Such Computers may have additional processors, besides the main processing unit. The data to be processed may be of complex nature. The size of data handled here is large. Intensive operations are performed to process data. It must be said that Advanced Processors are of much use here. Inflow of data to the Communication Subnetwork from outside causes the size of data to be large. Data from outside  has to be handled by the Subnetwork. The memory capacity of Subnetwork Computers is well suited for large size data. Subnetwork links may distribute the inflow of data to several Subnetwork Computers. Th...

The Greatest Common Divisor ( GCD ) of  two numbers is a number. The number ( GCD ) causes division of the two numbers. This number ( GCD ) is the greatest number that is possible. This divisor partially forms the two numbers. Adding  the divisor successively may result in formation of the two numbers. One can note that when the divisor is the greatest, the division of the dividend is the sharpest. The division operation is very effective. When the Greatest Common Divisor of two numbers is considered, we think of a number that can cause division of both the numbers. Here the two numbers are unequal. The Greatest Common Divisor causes divisions of the two numbers differently. This is clear from the two different quotient values.  The GCD value is very interesting to note. It relates very well with the two numbers. The GCD of two even numbers is also an even number. The GCD of two odd numbers is an odd number. So, we can say that GCD is an abstraction of the two numbers in ...

Computers are man made machines. They are made to work very fast. Working fast they can solve  big and small problems.  Modern science has given us these computers. They are very popular. Computers affect and change lives. They keep us happy.The happiness grows. Computers are quick and smart. Great problem solvers and simplifiers are our computers. They can do our work without stopping. Focus is on doing only what is needed. Not needed, not done.  Computers are  life-less servants. They cannot think or make decisions on their own. They are empowered to work. They are given each and every thing so that they carry out our orders. Orders are respected by computers. The manner in which computers work is wholly dependent on man.  The quality of service provided by computers is remarkable. They are loved by human beings. Computers are known for smart and quick service. Computers do not give wrong results. Correct answers are always given. Questions which are difficult...

Local-Area Networks ( LANs ) are restricted to a small area. Such Networks may be established within a building. Computers that are part of Local-Area Networks are Personal Computers ( PCs ) or microcomputers. These Computers are connected to each other. Simple communication lines connect these Pers Networks bring people together. When people join  hands teamwork becomes possible. The structural composition of LANs simplifies teamwork. In other words, LAN hardware supports teams having similar processing requirements. LAN Computers readily support personalization of tasks allocated to professionals.  Office staff can work together and share information. This improves the efficiency of the entire workforce. It has been noted that here all the Networked Computers are Personal Computers. They are of equal capacity. Mostly LAN users have similar tasks. If situations allow, a user is independent to access any Computer to serve his purpose. LAN users can exercise the option of secu...

Database is a huge collection of data. It lies in memory of a Computer. Several Databases may be present on different Computers at different locations. These Databases are called Distributed Databases. They may be within a small area. Such Databases may be across locations separated by large distances.  A Distributed Database System controls several DBMSs. A DBMS controls a Database. This arrangement tells us how Databases are organized in a Distribution. The topmost control authority is Distributed Database System. DBMSs are the subsystems. There are a number of DBMSs controlled by the Distributed Database System. These DBMSs contain Databases. A DBMS is in-charge of a  Database. We may say that a DBMS is a Database authority.  A DBMS and its Database exist together at a location. ____________________________ Note: DBMS ( DataBase Management System) is a program to develop a Database and help to use the Database. ___________________________ Distributed Databases are rich...

An algorithm has the following features: 1 ) Input: An algorithm is supplied with information. This information is called input. Addition operation can be performed with two numbers. An algorithm performing addition is given two numbers as input.  Input transformation is the job of algorithm design. The addition algorithm transforms the two input numbers into 'sum'. 2 ) Output: The result(s) of an algorithm is called output.  Output is produced by an algorithm. The addition of two numbers gives a result. This result is the output of the addition algorithm. Similarly, the quotient is the output given by the division algorithm. 3 ) Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm is very clear. There is no scope for confusion. In the addition algorithm the step dedicated to accept a number definitely ensures input of a number. This step cannot dedicate itself to accept an alphabet. Number means only number and not an alphabet. If an alphabet is accepted as input for addition, it is confu...

A Point-to-point Network is a communication Network. Existence of several points is recorded in a Point-to-point Network. These points are important locations and are called nodes. Here information is passed from previous point to  next point. We mean from node to node.  Let us suppose that information is at the first point ( node ) of a Point-to-point Network. The information at the first point has a size. It has to go from first point to second point. To go from the first point to the second, a communication line is needed. This communication line should be free enough to carry the size of information at the first point.  Now, one more requirement exists. The second point of a Point-to-point Network is the point to receive information from the first point. This        point should have enough memory space. This space should be enough to fit the size of information at the first point.  If a node in a Point-to-point Network has large storage capac...

A Transaction is an activity. Here give and take is performed. A 'request' is given and 'response' is taken. It is so simple.  Let us look at 'request'. A need may arise at a Client Computer.  ___________________________ Note: A Client Computer is a small Computer. ___________________________ The Client Computer may look for certain information. Clearly the information is not with the Client Computer. So, it tries to get it. It starts an activity. It moves ahead. It goes outside the boundary. It is because the Client Computer needs some information. It is not having that information.  A  Client Component requests information. When we move out, we need a channel. So  the Client Component uses a channel to 'request' information. The 'request' passes through a channel. Yes, the Client Component has made a 'request'. The Component knows the requirement. But it does not know the manner to get the required object. How to get the object it requi...

Network Architecture has two aspects:  A ) Design: The design is drawn in detail. The detailed plan is carefully prepared. B ) Implementation: The implementation is properly effected. The Network is given a concrete shape. In the study of Network Architecture the theoretical approach is useful for Network Design related issues. The practical approach to Network Architecture focuses on actual Networking activities. The practical aspects of the concrete Network implementation is very interesting. Network Architecture is not the same for all the Networks. Factors that affect Network Architecture are: 1 ) Nodal Configuration: Configuration of Computers used as nodes of the Network greatly affects Network Architecture. All the nodes may be having the same configuration. In this case the nodes are actually peers. If out of two nodes, one is  having a high configuration and another one is having minimal configuration, then a different case results.   2 ) Network Service: Network...

An algorithm is simply an answer to a particular kind of problem or question. The answer is expressed as a series of steps. Really, algorithms are solutions. These solutions are well organized. Yes, you know, here solutions are in forms of steps. All of the steps are effective. They cause effects. The general outline of an algorithm is as: 1 )Make a start. 2 )Find the solution in a number of steps 3 )Stop. The concept of algorithm is very popular in the Computer field. It is taken from the field of mathematics. Mathematics is broadly the study of numbers or quantities. In this subject we are given some numbers. On the given numbers some kind of operation is done. The arithmetic operations are done by arithmetic operators. Some examples of arithmetic  operators are '+',  '-',  '×', and '÷'.  After completion of the operation the result is obtained. The numbers which form the main part of mathematical problems are taken as inputs of algorithms.  Question) ...

A Host Computer is a part of Network structure. It is a computer that is very resource rich.  It is used in organisations. Organisations store application programs and important information in Hosts. These application programs are used to serve the meaningful goals of an organisation.  Computers based Network Architecture is suitable for Host Computers. As part of a Network, Host gives a great performance. Many small Computers access the Host Computer. Host Computer takes care of the requirements of small Computers. The Host and dependent  small Computers are part of a Network. The speed at which Hosts work is great. Besides, they have to carry out large amounts of data processing. The size of data handled by Hosts is large. Data comes from many small Computers. Small Computers submit data in small amounts. So, collectively combining these small amounts the size of data becomes large for the Host.  Problems that cannot be solved by small Computers are sent to the Hos...